Practice Note: Responding to stockholder proposals, director elections and say-on-pay votes

Practice Note: Responding to stockholder proposals, director elections and say-on-pay votes

Authors: James J. Hanks Jr., Michael D. Schiffer, Michael F. Sheehan

ISSN: 2521-2575
Affiliations: Partner, Venable LLP, Baltimore, MD; Partner, Venable LLP, Baltimore, MD; Partner, Venable LLP, Baltimore, MD
Source: Journal of Corporate and Commercial Law & Practice, Volume 8 Issue 2, 2022, p. 84 – 89
https://doi.org/10.47348/JCCL/V8/i2a4

Abstract

As boards of directors of public companies prepare for their 2023 annual meetings and, relatedly, consider the voting results from 2022 annual meetings, we are being asked for advice concerning (I) the duties of directors of Maryland corporations and (II) the policies and current practices of the proxy advisory services relating to stockholder proposals, director elections, and Say-On-Pay votes.

Book Review: Corporate Law and Corporate Governance – A Global Picture of Business Undertakings in South Africa, 2 ed

Book Review: Corporate Law and Corporate Governance – A Global Picture of Business Undertakings in South Africa, 2ed

Authors: Tshepo Mongalo and Tshepiso Scott

ISSN: 2521-2575
Affiliations: N/A
Source: Journal of Corporate and Commercial Law & Practice, Volume 8 Issue 2, 2022, p. 90 – 94
https://doi.org/10.47348/JCCL/V8/i2a5

Abstract

None

The Misuse and Abuse of Section 80J of the Income Tax Act: Time to get back to the basics

The Misuse and Abuse of Section 80J of the Income Tax Act: Time to get back to the basics

Author: Ed Liptak

ISSN: 2219-1585
Affiliations: Independent Tax Person Extraordinaire
Source: Business Tax & Company Law Quarterly, Volume 14 Issue 1, 2023, p. 1 – 12

Abstract

Section 80J of the Income Tax Act was introduced in 2006 as part of the then new General Anti-Avoidance Rule (GAAR). This section requires the Commissioner to notify a taxpayer at the point in an audit when he/she first comes to believe that the GAAR may be applicable to an arrangement entered into or carried out by the taxpayer. It was enacted in response to concerns that the new GAAR might be automatically relied upon by SARS as a ‘catch-all’ section of last resort without due and proper consideration. Commentators also expressed concerns about conduct of audits under former s 103, particularly with respect to delays they encountered and the time and expensed they incurred. Section 80J attempted to address these concerns by providing a logical framework for the timeous conduct of audits under the new GAAR. Subsection (1) requires the Commissioner to notify the taxpayer if he/she believes the GAAR may be applicable to an arrangement and state his/her reasons therefor; sub-s (2) gives the taxpayer an opportunity to respond to that notice; sub-s (3) requires the Commissioner to take further action within a specific statutory time frame; and sub-s (4) permits the Commissioner to revise or modify his reasons for applying the GAAR in light of any additional information that may come to his knowledge. Two recent judgments have raised concerns about the current approach being taken to s 80J by taxpayers and, to a certain extent, SARS itself. In particular, taxpayers appear to be taking the position that section 80J(1), read together with the statutory definition of ‘arrangement’, have imposed a burden upon the Commissioner to identify and describe a transaction, operation or scheme with an exacting degree of precision never before required under the former s 103 or its predecessors. This approach cannot be support by a textual, contextual and purposive interpretation of the provisions involved, and, in fact, would severely frustrate both the overriding purpose of the current GAAR and the specific purposes of s 80J itself.

Outsourcing and the Foreign Business Establishment Rule for CFC Purposes: Why The SCA Got it Wrong in CSARS v Coronation Investment Management SA (Pty) Ltd

Outsourcing and the Foreign Business Establishment Rule for CFC Purposes: Why The SCA Got it Wrong in CSARS v Coronation Investment Management SA (Pty) Ltd

Authors: Wally Horak and James Mckinnell

ISSN: 2219-1585
Affiliations: Head of Tax, Cape Town, Bowmans; Head of Litigation, Cape Town, Bowmans
Source: Business Tax & Company Law Quarterly, Volume 14 Issue 1, 2023, p. 13 – 23

Abstract

The judgment recently delivered by the Supreme Court of Appeal in the case of CSARS v Coronation Investment Management SA (Pty) Ltd, has caused significant uncertainty and concern amongst South African multinational enterprises which operate via subsidiaries in foreign countries. The judgment had to consider the requirements under section 9D of the Income Tax Act 58 of 1962 to qualify for the foreign business establishment (FBE) exemption from the controlled foreign company (CFC) rules, which may result in the imposition of South African normal tax on the South African parent company (‘Coronation SA’) of an amount equal to the net income of the CFC. In particular, the question was whether the CFC (‘Coronation Ireland’) may determine the scope of its primary business conducted in the foreign country or whether objective factors determine the potential scope of such business. The SCA considered the question with reference to the CFC’s Memorandum of Association and its business licence and concluded that the CFC was entitled to conduct the wider business of fund management and investment management and the fact that it decided to outsource its investment management functions implied that it did not conduct its primary business via the FBE in Ireland. Therefore, the SCA rejected the notion that the primary business is determined with reference to how the CFC chooses to operate, i e the choice of a business model cannot alter the primary operations of the CFC. The SCA thus held that the CFC did not qualify for the FBE exemption. With respect to the imposition of an understatement penalty and under-estimation of provisional tax penalty, the SCA found that the taxpayer relied on a legal opinion that it was entitled to the FBE exemption and there is nothing to suggest that the taxpayer’s tax returns were not submitted in the bona fide belief that it may be eligible for the FBE exemption. Therefore, the Court ruled that the claim for understatement penalties and under-estimation penalties must fail.

The Modified Section 23M: Interest deduction limitations

The Modified Section 23M: Interest deduction limitations

Author: Michael Rudnicki

ISSN: 2219-1585
Affiliations: Executive, Bowmans
Source: Business Tax & Company Law Quarterly, Volume 14 Issue 1, 2023, p. 24 – 31

Abstract

Section 23M of the Income Tax Act 58 of 1962 seeks to limit the deduction of interest on debt arising between parties related to one another and in respect of which the interest is not subject to tax in the hands of the recipient of the interest.

Section 23M was amended in 2021 by the Tax Laws Amendment Act 20 of 2021 and is effective from years of assessment ending on or after 31 March 2023. The key amendments to the section deal with:

  • Interest partially subject to tax.
  • The amendment to the definition of ‘interest’, being the subject matter of the limitation rules in the section.

In respect of interest partially subject to tax, i e a tax rate say of 5% in terms of a double taxation agreement, the limitation rules will apply to that part which is not subject to tax, i e 10% in the example given (being the 15% withholding tax rate — 5% withholding tax limitation under the applicable double taxation agreement).

The definition of ‘interest’ is expanded. The relevance of the definition’s expansion is that all ‘interest’ payable to a related party (a ‘controlling relationship’ as defined) which is not subject to tax, could be limited in terms of its deductibility.

The amended interest defi nition includes:

  • Interest as contemplated in s 24J of the Act: which includes common law interest and other charges of a similar nature;
  • Amounts incurred or accrued in respect of ‘interest rate agreements as contemplated in section 24K of the Act;
  • Any fi nance cost element recognised for purposes of IFRS in respect of any lease agreement that constitutes a finance lease as defined in IFRS16;
  • Foreign exchange gains and losses; and
  • Amounts deemed to be interest in terms of Sharia compliant financing arrangements.

Accordingly, finance arrangements between related parties where the ‘interest’, as defined, is not subject to tax or is partially subject to tax may be limited in terms of its deductibility.

Gierigheid is die wortel van alle kwaad

Gierigheid is die wortel van alle kwaad

Author: JC Sonnekus

ISSN: 1996-2207
Affiliations: Professor in Privaatreg, Universiteit van Johannesburg
Source: Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg, Issue 2, 2023, p. 175 – 208
https://doi.org/10.47348/TSAR/2023/i2a1

Abstract

The judgment in Maqubela v The Master leaves room to revisit some established norms in private law that define under what circumstances a subject may be disqualified and found to be unworthy to benefit financially from his/her behaviour against another – including the deceased. The deceased Maqubela AJ took out a significant life policy (R20 million) on his own life two weeks before his death. At the time of his death he was still married in community of property to his wife but was seriously contemplating divorce. His wife was not only aware of the significant life insurance that had just been taken out, but also of his contemplation of divorce. She was much annoyed about his multiple adulterous affairs over many years and even mentioned as much to the minister of justice the day before his sudden death in a deliberate way so as to discredit him in the eyes of the minister.

After the sudden demise of the insured life under suspicious circumstances, the widow was originally found guilty of premeditated murder of her husband and of the fraudulent production of a document presented to the master of the high court as the last will of the deceased that was proven to be a falsification in every respect. For the second offence she was sentenced by the court of first instance to prison for three years. On appeal the supreme court of appeal upheld her appeal regarding the conviction on the murder charge, but the other conviction remained intact.

In the civil case under discussion the court had to decide whether the widow as claimant was entitled to half of the common estate with inclusion of the R20 million insurance benefit as well as to lay claim as beneficiary under the norms of intestate succession to the widow’s part of the deceased’s estate.

It is submitted that the well-known “bloedige hand” rule, which excludes the person responsible for the death of the deceased from benefiting under the law of succession from the estate of the deceased, is merely an example of the underlying broader principle encapsulated in the text from Roman law “nemo ex suo delicto meliorem suam condicionem facere potest” (D 50 17 134 1): “No one is allowed to improve his own condition by his own wrongdoing” or “no woman should profit from her own wrong”. This principle can be found not merely in every civil law legal system but is also recognized in all common-law jurisdictions as can be deduced inter alia from the judgment in Karen L Postlewait v Ohio Valley Medical Center, Inc, a Corporation, et al, and Ohio Valley Medical Center, Inc, a Corporation, and The Estate of Robert L Postlewait, where Maynard JA on 8 Dec 2003 in the appeal to the supreme court of appeal of West Virginia held: “However, the majority equally fails to consider the possibility that Mrs Postlewait’s misconduct in pushing her husband off the porch played a significant role in her husband’s death. Clearly, the chain of events that led to Mr Postlewait’s death were directly put in motion by Mrs Postlewait. Mrs Postlewait filed a medical malpractice/wrongful death action against her husband’s medical providers and successfully negotiated a settlement netting herself more than half a million dollars! Given these circumstances, I am unable to find that Mrs Postlewait is entitled to profit from her husband’s death. Accordingly, I respectfully dissent” (31406). Clearly the claim of Mrs Postlewait to the resulting benefit of more than half a million dollars was unrelated to any claim founded on the law of succession. The quoted Latin maxim is a venerable old maxim in equity and should have been at the root of the judgment in the Maqubela case where there is room to suspect that the old adage still applies: the love of money is the root of all evil.

In light of the proven circumstances surrounding the demise of the late acting judge and the fraudulent attempt by his widow Maqubela to pass herself off as the primary testamentary beneficiary of his estate, reasonableness and equity prescribed that the erstwhile wife may neither lay claim to the significantly enhanced half of the common estate thanks to the life insurance benefit nor claim a child’s share as the widow’s portion of the estate of the deceased as governed by the law of intestate succession. Her conduct regarding the proven crime of the falsification of the will should have excluded her as unworthy beneficiary from any form of financial benefit from her marriage to the deceased including the claim to half of the common estate.

Matthaeus, the most prominent Old Authority on the implications of this principle in Roman-Dutch law, clearly states in Zinspreuken 6:4 that the disqualified unworthy spouse is also excluded from benefitting from the enhanced half of the common estate under the guise of the default principle of a rightful holder of half of the common estate. Modern Dutch law applies the same underlying principle to prevent unjustified enrichment of the wrongdoer. The principle of legal certainty in South African law did not benefit by this judgment. Not merely does it ignore the standing principles of Roman-Dutch law, but it also compares unfavourably with the outcome in related scenarios in comparable other legal systems.

Law as datum and law as purpose: Otto von Gierke’s conception of the social purpose of law and its continued relevance

Law as datum and law as purpose: Otto von Gierke’s conception of the social purpose of law and its continued relevance

Author: Derek Van der Merwe

ISSN: 1996-2207
Affiliations: Emeritus Professor of Law, University of Johannesburg
Source: Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg, Issue 2, 2023, p. 235 – 248
https://doi.org/10.47348/TSAR/2023/i2a2

Abstract

Otto von Gierke het in die laat negentiende eeuse Duitsland ’n sosiale funksie aan die reg gekoppel, as teenvoeter vir die dominante individualistiese regsbeskouing van die Duitse Romanisties-georiënteerde historiese regskool. Sy vertrekpunt was die regsbeskouings en -beginsels van die Germanistiese volksreg en -gewoontes wat sedert die Europese Middeleeue ’n eie ontwikkelingsgang naas die Romeinse reg in Duitse gebiede beleef het. Hy het ’n lesing voor die Weense Regsgenootskap in April 1889 gehou, enkele maande na die eerste konsep van ’n Duitse Burgerlike Wetboek vir openbare kommentaar vrygestel is (die Burgerlike Wetboek sou finaal op 1 Januarie 1900 geldende reg word). Hy het die geleentheid gebruik om as pleitbesorger op te tree vir ’n “sosiale” oriëntering van die privaatreg (die publiekreg was vanselfsprekend sosiaal gerig), as teenvoeter vir wat hy beskou het as die Romeinse nalatenskap van ’n oordrewe beskerming van individuele vryheid in die skep en uitoefen van privaat regte.

Von Gierke en sy mede-Germaniste het relatief min invloed op die finale weergawe van die Wetboek gehad. Op konstitusionele gebied, egter, toe die sogenaamde “Weimar grondwet” in 1919 opgestel is, het sy sienwyses wél invloed gehad: die bekende, kriptiese formulering, “Eiendom verplig” (wat in die 1949 Duitse Grundgesetz behou is), is direk aan sy invloed toe te skryf, so ook die bepalings in die Weimar grondwet oor kollektiewe bedinging in die destyds-ontluikende Duitse arbeidsreg.

In sy voordrag het hy verskeie argumente voorgehou om ’n sosiale doelstelling vir die privaatreg te onderskraag. Die reg het één gemeenskaplike doelstelling, en dis om menswees (Persönlichkeit) te bevorder en te beskerm, ’n doelstelling wat deur ’n té skerp, on-Germaanse, onderskeid tussen privaat- en publiekreg vertroebel word. Die beskerming van menswees is van meer fundamentele belang as die erkenning en beskerming van individuele regte en vryhede. Die ontwerp en uitleg van die reg het ten doel nie om vaste, oorgeërfde strukture en instellings op die sosiale en ekonomiese interaksie van mense af te dwing nie; dis eerder om reëls, beginsels en instellings te ontwerp en te plooi in ’n konstante proses van wording om by die werklik “lewendige” sosiale en ekonomiese omgang van mense wat bepaalde doelstellings nastreef, te pas – mits die doelstelling die morele selfhandhawing van mense inkorporeer en voortdurend deur ’n diepgewortelde sin vir geregtigheid geanimeer is.

Hierdie artikel ontleed von Gierke se voordrag aan die hand van voorbeelde en analises wat hy self gee. Dit beskryf ook die sienswyses van Rudolf von Jhering in sy “tweede fase”, na sy “bekering”, om die groot invloed wat von Jhering op von Gierke gehad het, te boekstaaf. Laastens beskryf dit die voortgesette (al is dit versweë) relevansie wat von Gierke se negentiende eeuse Germaans-geïnspireerde regsfilosofiese oorwegings vir ’n sosiale funksie vir die privaatreg op die moderne Suid-Afrikaanse reg en regspleging kan hê. Dit geskied aan die hand van voorbeelde uit verskeie vertakkinge van die reg: die sterk ooreenkoms tussen von Gierke se Germaanse kommunaliteitsgees en die Afrika begrip Ubuntu; die impak van ’n sosiale oriëntering op die beginsel van testeervryheid; die sterk ooreenkoms tussen Germaanse genootskapsvorme en die “stokvel” en die belangrikheid van ’n regulering van stokvelle deur die reg; en kommersiële bepalings om kwesbare verbruikers teen uitbuiting te beskerm.

An analysis of the preclusion rule in documentary credit practice with specific reference to the position of nominated and confirming banks

An analysis of the preclusion rule in documentary credit practice with specific reference to the position of nominated and confirming banks

Authors: Charl Hugo and Cayle Lupton

ISSN: 1996-2207
Affiliations: Emeritus Professor of Banking Law, University of Johannesburg; Senior Lecturer, University of Johannesburg
Source: Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg, Issue 2, 2023, p. 235 – 248
https://doi.org/10.47348/TSAR/2023/i2a3

Abstract

’n Dokumentêre kredietbrief (ook bekend as ’n kredietbrief) is ’n betaalmetode wat wyd in internasionale handelstransaksies gebruik word. Die hoofpartye tot ’n dokumentêre kredietbrief is die aansoeker (tipies die koper in die handelstransaksie), die begunstigde (verkoper) en die uitreikingsbank. Weens die internasionale aard van die transaksie kan verdere banke egter betrokke raak, insluitend ’n genomineerde bank en ’n bevestigende bank.

Betaling in dokumentêre kredietpraktyk kan op verskeie maniere gereël word. In alle gevalle spruit dit egter voort uit die aanbieding van dokumente in ooreenstemming met die vereistes van die dokumentêre kredietbrief. Die aanbieder van die dokumente kan die begunstigde van die dokumentêre kredietbrief wees, of dit kan ’n genomineerde of bevestigende bank wees. Wanneer ’n bank dokumente ontvang (of dit nou die uitreikende bank, genomineerde bank of bevestigende bank is) moet dit die dokumente ondersoek om te bepaal of dit aan die vereistes voldoen. Indien die dokumente nie daaraan voldoen nie, kan die bank weier om te betaal. So ’n weiering moet by wyse van ’n kennisgewing van weiering aan die aanbieder van die dokumente gekommunikeer word.

Voorgaande blyk uit die internasionale reëls wat altyd kredietbriewe beheer, naamlik die Eenvormige Gebruike en Praktyke vir Dokumentêre Krediete wat deur die bankkommissie van die Internasionale Kamer van Koophandel geformuleer is. Die reëls gaan egter verder en maak voorsiening vir ’n sogenaamde “uitsluitingsreël” wat in wese inhou dat, indien ’n bank nie sy weiering binne die gespesifiseerde tyd aan die aanbieder meedeel nie, die bank verhinder word om te beweer dat die dokumente nie voldoen aan die vereistes vir aanbieding nie. In sodanige geval is die bank aanspreeklik teenoor die begunstigde van die dokumentêre krediet ten spyte van die onvoldoende aanbieding. In gevalle waar op die uitsluitingsreël deur die begunstigde vir betaling onder die dokumentêre krediet staatgemaak word, kan die reël relatief maklik toegepas word.

Dit raak egter problematies wanneer daarop staatgemaak word deur ’n genomineerde of bevestigende bank wat terugbetaling van ’n uitreikende bank soek vir ’n betaling wat deur die genomineerde of bevestigende bank aan die begunstigde van die dokumentêre kredietbrief gemaak is. Die outeurs ondersoek hierdie kwessie teen die agtergrond van ’n stel feite wat onlangs in Suid-Afrika na vore gekom het.

Caveat petitor. Must a business rescue practitioner pay costs of liquidation de bonis propriis?

Caveat petitor. Must a business rescue practitioner pay costs of liquidation de bonis propriis?

Authors: Patrick O’Brien and Juanitta Calitz

ISSN: 1996-2207
Affiliations: Professor of Mercantile Law, University of Johannesburg; Associate Professor of Mercantile Law, University of Johannesburg
Source: Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg, Issue 2, 2023, p. 249 – 269
https://doi.org/10.47348/TSAR/2023/i2a4

Abstract

’n Sakereddingspraktisyn is verplig om aansoek by die hof te doen om die likwidasie van die maatskappy indien dit blyk dat daar nie meer ’n redelike vooruitsig is om die maatskappy te red nie. Wanneer sakeredding daardie stadium bereik, is die kanse goed dat die sakereddingspraktisyn ’n skuldeiser van die maatskappy is vir onbetaalde fooie en uitgawes. ’n Skuldeiser wat aansoek by die hof doen om die likwidasie van ’n maatskappy, moet ’n bydrae maak om die likwidasiekoste te delg indien die verkoop van die bates van die maatskappy nie voldoende vrye oorskot oplewer om dit te betaal nie. Daar is ook ’n goeie kans dat die verkoop van die bates van die maatskappy nie voldoende vrye oorskot sal oplewer om die likwidasiekoste te delg nie.

Met hierdie bydrae oorweeg die outeurs of dit beteken dat die sakereddingspraktisyn wat ook ’n skuldeiser van die maatskappy in sakeredding is ’n bydrae (effektief de bonis propriis) moet maak om die likwidasiekoste te delg. Dié regsvraag word beheers deur die Insolvensiewet van 1936, die Maatskappywet van 1973 en die Maatskappywet van 2008. Die tersake statutêre bepalings is nie met mekaar belyn ten einde die regsvraag sonder teenspraak te beantwoord nie. Die korrekte vertolking van die wetgewing word oorweeg aan die hand van wat hedendaags die geykte benadering van die Suid-Afrikaanse reg is dat vertolking dieselfde gewig moet verleen aan die teks, konteks, en oogmerk van die wetgewing wat gelyktydig oorweeg moet word, samelopend met die grondwetlike oorwegings.

Die outeurs doen na oorweging van hierdie faktore aan die hand dat die sakereddingspraktisyn nie ’n bydrae moet maak om ’n tekort aan te vul om likwidasiekoste te delg indien die aansoek qua sakereddingspraktisyn gebring word om likwidasie van die maatskappy nie. Die sakereddingspraktisyn voldoen met so ’n aansoek aan ’n statutêre verpligting en bring dit nie om ’n verpligting van die maatskappy jeens die sakereddingspraktisyn as skuldeiser af te dwing nie. ’n Teenstrydige vertolking sal ’n bykomstige hindernis plaas in die evaluering van die potensiële keuses om sakeredding na te streef. Dit sal, teenstrydig met die openbare belang, sakereddingspraktisyns afskrik om aanstellings te aanvaar en hulle aanmoedig om voort te ploeter met sakeredding nieteenstaande die feit dat objektief dit geen vooruitsig op sukses het nie.

A cause of action raising a triable issue in a class action: reconsidering the certification threshold

A cause of action raising a triable issue in a class action: reconsidering the certification threshold

Author: Theo Broodryk

ISSN: 1996-2207
Affiliations: Associate Professor and Head of the Law Clinic at the University of Stellenbosch
Source: Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg, Issue 2, 2023, p. 270 – 282
https://doi.org/10.47348/TSAR/2023/i2a5

Abstract

In Children’s Resource Centre Trust v Pioneer Food (Pty) Ltd (2013 2 SA 213 (HHA)) het ar Wallis verskeie vereistes vir sertifisering van ’n groepsgeding neergelê. Hierdie vereistes is later deur die konstitusionele hof tot blote faktore gerelegeer wat oorweeg moet word onder die hoofoorweging van die belang van geregtigheid. Een van die sertifiseringsfaktore is dat daar ’n eisoorsaak moet bestaan wat ’n beregbare kwessie openbaar. Appèlregter Wallis het bevind dat die toets wat van toepassing is om te bepaal of ’n pleitstuk eksipiabel is, gebruik moet word om te bepaal of daar wel so ’n eisoorsaak teenwoordig is.

Die doel met hierdie artikel is om die benadering van die Suid-Afrikaanse hoër howe te evalueer om te bepaal of daar in die betrokke sertifiseringsaangeleenthede aan die bostaande faktor voldoen is en om sekere voorstelle te maak aangaande die manier waarop ons howe in die toekoms verkieslik met hierdie kwessie moet omgaan. Die uitspraak van r Unterhalter in De Bruyn v Steinhoff International Holdings NV (2022 1 SA 442 (GJ)) vorm die grondslag van die artikel. Die benadering van die prominente buitelandse jurisdiksie van Ontario in Kanada word ook in die artikel oorweeg.

Uiteindelik word in die artikel geargumenteer ten gunste van die handhawing van ’n minder streng benadering om te bepaal of ’n eisoorsaak ’n beregbare kwessie openbaar. Eksepsies behoort deur ’n verweerder geopper te word vir oorweging deur die verhoorhof na die groepsgeding van stapel gestuur is. Die sertifiseringshof behoort bloot te bepaal of dit duidelik en voor die hand liggend is dat die eisoorsaak onhoudbaar is. Indien wel, is sertifisering onwaarskynlik omdat dit nie sou sin maak om ’n groepsgeding in sulke omstandighede te sertifiseer nie, ongeag of daar aan die ander sertifiseringsfaktore voldoen is. Maar, waar die houdbaarheid van die eisoorsaak onduidelik is, behoort dié faktor ten gunste van sertifisering te werk, met die verhoorhof wat later kan bepaal of die eisoorsaak eksipiabel is.