Resource curse and impunity gaps: National inadequacies, international responses and regional promises / Malédiction des ressources et impunité: Insuffisances nationales, réponses internationales et promesses régionales

Resource curse and impunity gaps: National inadequacies, international responses and regional promises / Malédiction des ressources et impunité: Insuffisances nationales, réponses internationales et promesses régionales

Author: Ebele Angela Onyeabo

ISSN: 1821-8962
Affiliations: LL B (Hons), PhD candidate and affiliate of the Centre for Comparative and Transnational Law (CCLT), Faculty of Law, Chinese University of Hong Kong.
Source: Journal of the African Union Commission on International Law 2021, p. 269-307
https://doi.org/10.47348/AUCIL/2021/a8

Abstract

Kleptocracy has been a constant feature in Africa. The fallout of this relentless pursuit for state funds continues to threaten not only the economy, but also the security and stability of the region. Limited domestic judicial accountability for ‘grand corruption’ has exacerbated this problem, rendering both United Nations (UN) and African Union (AU) anti-corruption conventions ineffective. As a possible solution, the AU has adopted the Malabo Protocol, which creates a criminal chamber or a Regional Criminal Court (RCC) within the newly formed African Court of Justice and Human Rights (ACJHR), that merges the already existing AU courts. This represents the first supranational institution to tackle ‘grand corruption’ as defined in art 28I of the Protocol. This paper discusses the link between corruption, the ‘resource curse’ and regional security. It evaluates the efficacy of art 28I of the Protocol within the context of other mechanisms developed to address grand corruption globally, like transparency initiatives and the exercise of jurisdictional sovereignty over transnational crimes. The paper comments on the possible relationship between the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the RCC and proposes steps that the RCC could take to overcome anticipated challenges.

 

La kleptocracie est une caractéristique constante en Afrique. Les retombées de cet engouement effréné pour vider les caisses de l’État sont une menace non seulement pour l’économie, mais aussi pour la sécurité et stabilité de la région. La responsabilité judiciaire nationale limitée pour les crimes de « grande corruption » ont exacerbé ce problème rendant de ce fait inefficaces les conventions des Nations unies (NU) et l’Union africaine (UA) contre la corruption. Comme solution, l’UA a adopté le protocole de Malabo qui crée une chambre criminelle ou un Tribunal Criminel Régional (TCR) au sein de la Cour africaine de Justice et des Droits de l’Homme (CAJDH) nouvellement créée, qui fusionne les tribunaux déjà existants de l’UA. Ceci représente la première institution supranationale qui tacle la « grande corruption » telle que définit par l’article 281 du Protocole. Cet article examine le lien entre la corruption, la « malédiction des ressources » et la sécurité régionale. Il évalue l’efficacité de l’article 281 du Protocole vis-à-vis d’autre mécanismes développés pour combattre la corruption à l’échelon mondial tels que les initiatives de transparence et l’exercice de la souveraineté juridictionnelle sur les crimes transnationaux. Cet article commente sur la possibilité d’une relation entre la Cour pénale internationale (CPI) et le TCR et propose des mesures que le TCR pourrait prendre afin de pallier aux problèmes éventuels.

International trade law dimensions of natural resources management in Africa / Dimensions du droit commercial international de la gestion des ressources naturelles en Afrique

International trade law dimensions of natural resources management in Africa / Dimensions du droit commercial international de la gestion des ressources naturelles en Afrique

Author: Regis Y. Simo

ISSN: 1821-8962
Affiliations: LLM in International Trade, University of Fribourg (Switzerland), PhD in International Law and Economics, Bocconi University (Milan, Italy); Senior Researcher at the Mandela Institute, School of Law, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
Source: Journal of the African Union Commission on International Law 2021, p. 308-354
https://doi.org/10.47348/AUCIL/2021/a9

Abstract

The extraction and processing of raw materials into commodities are not only attractive for their economic value but also for political reasons. This makes natural resources a source of extreme greed. In this context, regions rich in raw materials, such as Africa, become the scene of local and foreign speculation and, instead of contributing to the development of endowed countries, natural resources often become factors of fragility – hence the ‘natural resources curse’ phrase. While countries exercise sovereignty over their resources by virtue of international law, it has also become essential to develop more sustainable activities in order to continue to exploit these resources. Cognisant of these global environmental challenges, a great number of countries in the world are committed to safeguarding the planet, as can be seen from the adoption of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. At the international level, the multiplicity and complexity of legal norms applicable to the exploitation of natural resources can constitute an obstacle to their application. Indeed, while the scarcity of resources and the surge of environmental problems associated with their exploitation have led to greater reliance on international law because the stakes are global and permeate political boundaries, the corpus of international law rules is sometimes only indirectly relevant to natural resources, since they were not enacted to protect natural resources per se. This is the case of the rules of the World Trade Organization (WTO), which, while not adopted for that purpose, have a bearing on trade in natural resources. While all WTO members are required to open their markets to competition from abroad, WTO-covered agreements give them a certain leeway to regulate this flow in order to pursue societal goals. In other words, under certain circumstances, a WTO member is allowed to justify otherwise WTO-inconsistent measures in the name of legitimate domestic values. This paper focuses on trade rules that control the asymmetrical global distribution and exhaustibility of natural resources, especially export restrictions and their justifications in WTO law. The objective of this paper is to analyse the international and unilateral trade measures addressing non-trade concerns and their relevance for natural resources management in Africa.

 

L’extraction et la transformation des matières premières en produits finis de base sont non seulement attractives pour leur valeur économique mais aussi pour des raison politiques. Ce qui fait des ressources naturelles une source de cupidité extrême. A cet effet, au lieu de contribuer au développement des pays qui y sont dotés, les régions riches en matières premières deviennent le théâtre des spéculations nationales et étrangères au point où les ressources naturelles deviennent des facteurs de déstabilisation d’où l’appellation de « malédiction des ressources naturelles ». Bien que les pays exercent la souveraineté sur leurs ressources en vertu du droit international, il devient essentiel de développer des activités plus durables afin de continuer l’exploitation de ces ressources. Conscient de ces problèmes environnementaux dans le monde, un grand nombre de pays dans le monde s’engagent à sauvegarder la planète, comme peut-on constater avec l’adoption de la Convention africaine pour la Conservation de la Nature et des Ressources naturelles. Sur le plan international, la multiplicité et la complexité des normes juridiques applicables à l’exploitation des ressources naturelles peuvent constituer un obstacle pour son application. En effet, si la rareté des ressources et la montée des problèmes environnementaux liées à leur exploitation ont conduit à une dépendance accrue au droit international parce que les enjeux sont mondiaux et dépassent les barrières politiques, les règles du droit international s’appliquent indirectement aux ressources naturelles puisqu’elles n’ont pas été promulguées pour protéger les ressources naturelles en tant que tel. Ceci est le cas des règles de l‘Organisation mondiale du Commerce (OMS), qui, bien que non adoptées ont une incidence sur le commerce des ressources naturelles. Bien que les membres de l’OMS ont obligations d’ouvrir leurs marchés à la concurrence étrangère, les accords couverts par l’OMS leur donnent un certain levier pour réguler ce flux afin de poursuivre des objectifs sociétaux. Autrement dit, dans certaines circonstances, un membre de l’OMS est autorisé de justifier les mesures incompatibles avec les règles de l’OMS pour des raisons de valeurs nationales légitimes. Cet article se focalise sur les règles commerciales qui contrôlent la distribution mondiale asymétrique et l’épuisement des ressources naturelles particulièrement les restrictions à l’exportation et leurs justifications d’après la loi de l’OMS. L’objectif de cet article est d’examiner les mesures internationales et unilatérales qui adressent les préoccupations non commerciales et leur importance sur la gestion des ressources naturelles en Afrique.

Report of the 7th forum of the African Union Commission on International Law / Rapport du 7e forum de la Commission de l’Union africaine sur le droit international

Report of the 7th forum of the African Union Commission on International Law / Rapport du 7e forum de la Commission de l’Union africaine sur le droit international

Author: Kathleen Quartey Ayensu

ISSN: 1821-8962
Affiliations: LL B (Hons), LL M, M Comp L
Source: Journal of the African Union Commission on International Law 2021, p. 355-422
https://doi.org/10.47348/AUCIL/2021/a10

Abstract

INTRODUCTION

  1. The African Union Commission on International Law (the AUCIL) was established as an advisory organ on the basis of Article 5(2) of the Constitutive Act of the African Union. On February 4, 2009 the Executive Council of the Union adopted the operational Statute of the AUCIL.
  2. The objectives of the AUCIL, inter alia, are to undertake activities relating to the codification and progressive development of international law on the African continent with special reference to the laws of the Union, including African customary law arising from the practice of Member States (Article 4(4)). Furthermore, the AUCIL shall cooperate and collaborate in the teaching, study and dissemination of International law and African Union law, with universities, institutions and other educational and research bodies, and lawyers’ associations (Article 9).
  3. For several years now, the AUCIL has held an annual Forum as a means to fulfill these goals. The AUCIL convened its 7th Forum on 10 and 11 December, 2018, at the African Union headquarters in Addis Ababa, Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. The Theme for the Forum was, “MANAGEMENT OF AFRICA’S NATURAL RESOURCES’’. This theme was deliberated on the context of African Union Agenda 2063.
  4. Officers for the Seventh Forum were:
    • Chairman of Forum: Hon Judge Ismael Abdi Hersi, Vice-Chairperson of AUCIL
    • Rapporteur General of Forum: Hon Kathleen Quartey Ayensu, AUCIL Commissioner
    • In attendance: Ag Executive Secretary, Dr Guy-Fleury Ntwari, and selected Attorneys from the Office of the Legal Counsel, African Union Commission.

The future of contract law: Three conversations at the Cape

The future of contract law: Three conversations at the Cape

Author R Brownsword

ISSN: 1996-2088
Affiliations: LLB (University of London (LSE)); Professor of Law at King’s College London and at Bournemouth University, Honorary Professor at Sheffield University, and Visiting Professor at the City University Hong Kong.
Source: Acta Juridica, 2021, p. 3 – 36
https://doi.org/10.47348/ACTA/2021/a1

Abstract

This contribution considers the future of the English law of contract in the form of three conversations that are alert to the disruptive impact of technologies on both the content of legal rules and the way that lawyers think and indeed on the kind of conversations that lawyers have with one another. The first conversation is concerned with coherence in contract law, with the application of general principles to novel fact situations and to new phenomena, with the smoothing of tensions within the law, and with the internal integrity of legal doctrine. The second conversation focuses on a tension between, on the one hand, what may be called a traditional private law coherentist concern for doctrinal integrity and the primacy of principle over policy and, on the other hand, a more regulatoryapproach to contracts, especially to consumer contracts, in which policy and instrumental rationality prevail. The third conversation focuses on the use of emerging transactional technologies (such as blockchain-supported smart contracts and AI) that have the potential to displace the rules and principles of contract law. Instead of legal code governing transactions, might we find that technological coding does all the work, making, performing and enforcing contracts? Each conversation suggests a different future for contract law. The first conversation suggests that contract law will have difficulty in living up to the private law ideal of coherence; the second suggests that coherentism will struggle to survive as it is challenged by an increasingly regulatory approach to the governance of transactions; and the third suggests that, in a world of smart transactional technologies, there is a serious question mark about the relevance of contract law as a body of rules that governs transactions.

Breach of contract

Breach of contract

Author E Clive

ISSN: 1996-2088
Affiliations: CBE FRSE; Honorary Professor at the University of Edinburgh.
Source: Acta Juridica, 2021, p. 37 – 56
https://doi.org/10.47348/ACTA/2021/a2

Abstract

This contribution uses J & H Ritchie Ltd v Lloyd Ltd 2007 SC (HL) 89 as a peg on which to hang a number of fundamental questions about contract: What is a contract? Does the word contract sometimes refer to a legal relationship rather than a juridical act? If so, does this matter? Is the law on implied terms satisfactory? Might a duty of good faith and fair dealing in contract law be a better way of dealing with certain problems than resort to the implication of terms? When is a breach of contract serious enough to justify cancellation or rescission? Should a supplier of defective goods have a right to cure the defect? Is there a risk of forgetting the difference between a right to withhold performance and a right to rescind or cancel? These questions are prompted by the fact that this was a straightforward case and similar situations must occur regularly. Yet, different judges reasoned differently and came to different conclusions in the course of the case being appealed all the way to the House of Lords. The question, therefore, is: how might a simple case have been better, or in a more straightforward way, approached through law? The contribution argues that the Draft Common Frame of Reference (the DCFR) provides both concepts and rules that would have reached the ultimate conclusion in Ritchie much more quickly and perhaps the case would not have needed to be litigated at all.

Contract law reform: Legislators or judges – or both?

Contract law reform: Legislators or judges – or both?

Author H MacQueen

ISSN: 1996-2088
Affiliations: LLB PhD (Edinburgh) FBA FRSE; Professor of Private Law, University of Edinburgh.
Source: Acta Juridica, 2021, p. 57 – 82
https://doi.org/10.47348/ACTA/2021/a3

Abstract

This essay pursues a theme identified by Dale Hutchison judgesuse of their technical expertise to achieve creativity in law and asks how far that may be relied upon by law reform bodies, such as the Law Commissions in the United Kingdom. The question is whether such bodies should take account of means other than legislation for having their recommendations put into effect. It is suggested that, while law reform bodies should be fully aware that their published work is a source of information, ideas and arguments for practitioners and judges which may contribute to the judicial development of the law, they should address themselves only to government and the legislature.

Bona fides and ubuntu – A response to Dale Hutchison

Bona fides and ubuntu – A response to Dale Hutchison

Author J Barnard-Naudé

ISSN: 1996-2088
Affiliations: BCom (Law) LLB LLD (Pret) MA (Cape Town); Research Professor, University of the Free State.
Source: Acta Juridica, 2021, p. 85 – 106
https://doi.org/10.47348/ACTA/2021/a4

Abstract

This paper is a response to Dale Hutchisons recent arguments about the role of fairness in contract law after the Constitution. From the point of view of transformative constitutionalism, the paper argues that the fairness debate in the South African law of contract should be approached as what it so patently is, namely, as evidence of a deep ideological conflict that has existed in our law of contract for a very long time, and that this debate now exists within the context of a larger debate about the appropriate transformative reach of the Constitution. The argument takes the form of two dangerous supplements to Hutchisons discourse. The first of these supplements contends that indeterminacy is a symptom of the common law itself, rather than a result of contract laws contact with the Constitution. The second dangerous supplement suggests a responsible judicial engagement with bona fides and ubuntu, one that can exploit the strengths of both the common law and the Constitution and that understands good faith and ubuntu to be inter-linkingconstitutional values that should be enlisted in unison or at least in resonance when it comes to the question of fairness in our contemporary law of contract. In conclusion, I offer a reading of Hutchisons own politics of contract law and contend that his is an altruistic politics committed to the standard form. I contend that this politics of contract law is consistent with a transformative understanding of the post-apartheid legal order. Law, like every other cultural institution, is a place where we tell one another stories about our relationships with ourselves, one another, and authority. In this, law is no different from the Boston Globe, the CBS evening news, Mother Jones, or a law school faculty meeting. When we tell one another stories, we use languages and themes that different pieces of the culture make available to us, and that limit the stories we can tell. Since our stories influence how we imagine, as well as how we describe, our relationships, our stories also limit who we can be.

The future of the doctrine of economic duress in South African contract law: The influence of Roman-Dutch law, English law and the Constitution of the Republic

The future of the doctrine of economic duress in South African contract law: The influence of Roman-Dutch law, English law and the Constitution of the Republic

Author D Bhana

ISSN: 1996-2088
Affiliations: BCom LLB LLM PhD; Professor of Law, University of the Witwatersrand.
Source: Acta Juridica, 2021, p. 107 – 140
https://doi.org/10.47348/ACTA/2021/a5

Abstract

In England, the contractual doctrine of economic duress is an important mechanism for curbing abuses of superior bargaining power. In contrast, in South Africa, the courts are yet to articulate a definitive doctrine. In this article, I argue for a twenty-first century South African doctrine of economic duress that is delineated primarily in terms of South Africas foundational constitutional value of equality. For this purpose, I consider English contract law and show how it is a concern for equity that has been central to its treatment of economic duress. I then highlight the normative limitations of the English doctrine, but argue that the English legal experience of economic duress remains valuable for corresponding developments in the modern South African commercial context, especially in light of the latters post-apartheid constitutional framework, which provides the normative content of baseline standards that must inform its doctrine of economic duress.

Equity and certainty in contract law

Equity and certainty in contract law

Author F Brand

ISSN: 1996-2088
Affiliations: SC BA LLB LLM LLD (hc); former Judge of the Supreme Court of Appeal; Judge of the Appeal Court of Botswana; Justice of the Supreme Court of Fiji; Judge of the International Commercial Court of Qatar; Professor Extraordinary of Private Law at the University of the Free State; Honorary Professor of Law at the University of Stellenbosch.
Source: Acta Juridica, 2021, p. 141 – 176
https://doi.org/10.47348/ACTA/2021/a6

Abstract

The role of abstract values such as equity and fairness in our law of contract has been the subject of controversy for a number of years. In 2002 the Supreme Court of Appeal took the position that these values do not constitute self-standing grounds for interfering with contractual relationships. Despite this being consistently maintained by the SCA in a number of cases, some High Court judges deviated from this position on the basis that they were permitted to do so by some minority judgments and obiter dicta in the Constitutional Court. The uncertainty thus created has fortunately now been removed by the judgment of the Constitutional Court in Beadica v The Trustees for the Time being of the Oregon Trust.

Some thoughts on the consequences of illegal contracts

Some thoughts on the consequences of illegal contracts

Author J du Plessis

ISSN: 1996-2088
Affiliations: BCom LLB LLM (Stell) PhD (Aberdeen); distinguished professor of law, Stellenbosch University.
Source: Acta Juridica, 2021, p. 177 – 202
https://doi.org/10.47348/ACTA/2021/a7

Abstract

Few topics in the law of contract have generated as much debate as determining the effects of contracts that infringe statutory or common-law rules. While South African law has in some respects adopted remarkably progressive positions in these debates, especially by displaying flexibility in determining when parties may claim restitution, it also still applies some constructs, rules or maxims in a manner that impedes determining the appropriate consequences of infringing rules or illegality. In this regard it is argued (i) that the concept of an illegal contract should be treated with caution, since different commentators automatically link it to different consequences; (ii) that the continued reference to a construct styled the par delictum rule is not helpful when determining whether duties of restitution arise from these contracts; and (iii) that the ex turpi maxim creates the misleading impression that tainted contracts are invariably unenforceable, whereas the reality may be quite different.