Huweliksluiting én aanneming van kinders kragtens kulturele gebruike in stryd met die reg behoort kragteloos te wees – sed, ex Africa semper aliquid novi

Huweliksluiting én aanneming van kinders kragtens kulturele gebruike in stryd met die reg behoort kragteloos te wees – sed, ex Africa semper aliquid novi

Author: JC Sonnekus

ISSN: 1996-2207
Affiliations: Professor in Privaatreg, Universiteit van Johannesburg
Source: Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg, Issue 2, 2021, p. 211 – 239
https://doi.org/10.47348/TSAR/2021/i2a1

Abstract

Section 211(3) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 provides that no recognition of customary norms may be upheld if such norms are in conflict with either the constitution or any other law that deals specifically with customary law: “The courts must apply customary law when that law is applicable, subject to the Constitution and any legislation that specifically deals with customary law.” The current Recognition of Customary Marriages Act 120 of 1998 deals explicitly with the recognition of customary marriages which are concluded in accordance with customary law (s 1). Customary law is defined as the “customs and usages traditionally observed among the indigenous African peoples of South Africa and which form part of the culture of those peoples”. It follows from a further reading of section 1 that a customary marriage is reserved for those indigenous African peoples who observe such customs and usages.

It is provided in section 10(4) that “[d]espite subsection (1), no spouse of a marriage entered into under the Marriage Act, 1961, is, during the subsistence of such marriage, competent to enter into any other marriage”. This must be read with the definitions contained in section 1: “‘customary law’ means the customs and usages traditionally observed among the indigenous African peoples of South Africa and which form part of the culture of those peoples; ‘customary marriage’ means a marriage concluded in accordance with customary law”. Without the requisite legal competency, no legal subject can enter into any relationship to which the law may attach any consequences. Nobody can enter into a customary marriage if any of the presumed future spouses is already in a civil marriage according to the Marriage Act 25 of 1961, not even if the two parties are married to each other.

According to the custom of various indigenous nations, if a man enters into a valid customary marriage with a woman who had never been married before but who is the mother of children born out of wedlock (spurii), the metaphor applies that he “who takes the cow also acquires the calf”. He will as part and parcel of the lobola ceremony be seen as the adopting stepfather of his wife’s children, with all the accompanying consequences. He will automatically be responsible for the future maintenance of those children as his adoptive children and they will acquire all rights and privileges that are bestowed on a child, including the right to inheritance and the right to his family name. As a consequence of this new relationship, all legal ties with the biological father of the adopted child are severed and the biological father will no longer be responsible for the maintenance of his offspring.

In January 2019 an erstwhile law professor from UNISA who still retained his German citizenship, was gravely ill and cared for on life-support at a hospital in the Pretoria district. While in hospital, he tied the marriage knot with Miss Vilakazi, a Zulu woman with whom he had been in a relationship for the past five years. Miss Vilakazi was a spinster, but she had a Zulu daughter who was born out of wedlock more than eight years previously out of a relationship with an erstwhile Zulu lover. This child had been in the care of her maternal grandmother in Natal and, according to Zulu customary norms, was considered part of the house of her maternal grandfather, Vilakazi. She consequently carried the name Vilakazi as her registered surname on her official birth certificate. The marriage, which was conducted on 29 January 2019 in the hospital in Pretoria, was concluded with adherence to all the requirements of Act 25 of 1961. The civil marriage was duly registered as such. The late professor passed away in the hospital barely three weeks later on 19 February 2019.

Less than 24 hours before the demise of the professor a purported customary marriage was concluded, apparently on behalf of the professor with the recently married Mrs Schulze by proxy by a friend of his in the Newcastle district in Natal after having paid R60 000 as ilobolo. The ceremony was concluded with the ceremonial slaughtering of the prescribed goat. However, during this ceremony the groom was not present but on life support in a Pretoria hospital and not necessarily compos mentis – the court was told that he was represented by a friend. Zulu customary law, however, does not recognise a marriage concluded by proxy with a substitude bridegroom as was known in Roman-Dutch law as “a wedding with the glove”. Neither the Marriage Act nor the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act, however, recognises a second marriage after the conclusion of a civil marriage by any of the purported newly weds – even if both “spouses” had been present in person.

The mother of the late Professor Schulze, after his demise in South Africa, amended her last will in Germany and appointed her lifelong partner as sole beneficiary of her significant estate. She passed away in Germany in October 2019.

In November 2019 the recently married Mrs Schulze, on behalf of her minor daughter, successfully approached the high court in Pietermaritzburg, where Zaca AJ issued an order compelling the South African department of home affairs to issue the daughter with a new birth certificate that reflects the late Professor Schulze as her father.

Notwithstanding the unease of the officials at home affairs with this court order, the minister of home affairs, Mr Motsoaledi, personally intervened in August 2020 and the new birth certificate was issued as requested. Relying on this newly issued birth certificate, the applicant claims an amount of not less than R8 million in Germany from the estate of the late mother of Professor Schulze. For this purpose, the applicant relies on a principle in German law, the Pflichtteilsanspruch, according to which any descendant of the deceased has a right to a prescribed portion, a so-called legitimate portion of the estate, if not mentioned or sufficiently bestowed in the last will. This raises a number of seriously flawed legal arguments that are analysed in this article.

It is submitted that the perceived lobola marriage ceremony conducted on behalf of the late professor on 18 February 2019 in Newcastle, less than 24 hours before his demise, is void because of the explicit constitutional provision and the relevant section 10(4) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act 120 of 1998, which excludes any competency to enter into a customary marriage if any of the parties involved is already married. At the date of the perceived lobola ceremony, Mrs Schulze had already been civilly married to Professor Schulze for more than three weeks and thus both spouses lacked the necessary competency to enter into a valid customary marriage. Whether a valid customary marriage could have been concluded at all with a man who did not live according to the customs and usages of the Zulu, is also highly questionable.

Because the perceived lobola marriage is a nullity, no legal consequences can flow from this nullity and the so-called customary adoption of the daughter (“the calf with the cow”) is a nullity too. At no stage was any of the requirements for a valid adoption as governed by the Children’s Act 38 of 2005 adhered to. The minister of home affairs should have immediately given notice of appeal after the unconvincing judgment of Zaca AJ was handed down in January 2020. As the responsible minister, he should guard the upholding of the constitution and the applicable legal provisions unambiguously contained in the relevant section 10(4) of Act 120 of 1998. It is a pity that the so-called adherence to the principles of the “rule of law” is not even paid lip service in this case. Bennett, as a renowned expert on customary law, correctly pointed out that the legal orders are not unconnected. It may never be assumed that the people concerned are unaware of how to manipulate the resources offered them by legal pluralism (A Sourcebook of African Customary Law for Southern Africa (1991) 50).

    Should South Africa adopt fair use? Cutting through the rhetoric

    Should South Africa adopt fair use? Cutting through the rhetoric

    Author: S Karjiker

    ISSN: 1996-2207
    Affiliations: Anton Mostert Chair of Intellectual Property Law, Professor in the Department of Mercantile Law, Stellenbosch University
    Source: Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg, Issue 2, 2021, p. 240 – 255
    https://doi.org/10.47348/TSAR/2021/i2a2

    Abstract

    Die wetgewer poog om met die Wysigingswetsontwerp op Outeursreg ingrypende veranderinge in die Wet op Outeursreg aan te bring, waarby die instelling van billike gebruik (“fair use”) ingesluit word. Hierdie voorgestelde wysiging blyk nie die resultaat te wees van enige erkende hersieningsproses nie, en vereis ’n deeglike ontleding van die gevolge daarvan. Hierdie radikale afwyking van ons huidige benadering ten opsigte van die uitsonderings in outeursreg is deur sommige bekende tegnologie maatskappye ondersteun, nie net in Suid-Afrika nie, maar ook in ander regsgebiede soos die Verenigde Koninkryk, Australië en Nieu-Seeland. Die artikel spreek ernstige kommer uit oor die implikasies van die instelling van billike gebruik in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg. Sodra verby die retoriek van die beweerde meerderwaardigheid van billike gebruik beweeg word, is die prentjie wat ontstaan verontrustend. Alhoewel daar entoesiastiese ondersteuning blyk te wees vir die instelling van billike gebruik vanuit sekere oorde, is die geskiedenis daarvan om regsekerheid te vestig in die regsgebied van sy statutêre oorsprong, die Verenigde State, minder bemoedigend. Billike gebruik vereis ’n litigasieproses tussen die verskillende partye om die toelaatbare uitsonderings op outeursreg te bepaal. Daar is geen noodwendige rede waarom billike gebruik meer responsief is op tegnologiese verandering as wetgewende hervorming nie.

    Daar is beduidende verskille in ons regstelsel en die litigasieproses wanneer dit vergelyk word met dié van die Verenigde State. Versuim om die verskille te erken, kan tot onvoorspelbare en onbedoelde gevolge lei. Uitsonderings op die outeursreg behels aspekte van openbare beleid. Dit moet nie deur regters beslis word ooreenkomstig ’n agenda wat daargestel is deur private litigante nie. In ’n demokratiese samelewing moet openbare beleidskwessies deur die parlement bepaal word en dit mag openbare deelname insluit.

    Billike gebruik, of enige vorm van oop uitsonderings, kan daartoe lei dat Suid-Afrika sy verdragsverpligtinge kragtens die Bernkonvensie, die TRIPs-ooreenkoms en in die besonder die sogenaamde “drie-stap-toets” mag oortree. Dit is ook duidelik dat die houding van die Europese Unie en die Verenigde State teenoor die groot tegnologie maatskappye minder uiteenlopend is, en dat wetgewende maatreëls ingestel word, of oorweeg word, om die uitbuiting van die regte van outeursreghebbendes te beperk. Voorstanders vir die instelling van billike gebruik het nog geen regverdiging verskaf waarom Suid-Afrika dit só moet gedra oor sy internasionale verpligtinge nie.

      The third branch of the legal profession

      The third branch of the legal profession

      Author: Michele Van Eck

      ISSN: 1996-2207
      Affiliations: Senior Lecturer in Private Law, University of Johannesburg
      Source: Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg, Issue 2, 2021, p. 256 – 278
      https://doi.org/10.47348/TSAR/2021/i2a3

      Abstract

      Die Suid-Afrikaanse regsberoep is tradisioneel opgedeel in twee verskillende takke van die praktyk, naamlik die van prokureurs en van advokate. Elk van hierdie takke fokus op spesifieke praktykareas en benodig unieke vaardighede om die spesifieke deel van die regsberoep suksesvol te kan navigeer. Tog het ’n derde tak van die regsberoep ontstaan uit die behoeftes van moderne kliënte, waarin regspraktisyns in diens geneem word om binne hul kliënte se organisasiestrukture hul eie regsrolle te vervul en regsdienste te lewer. Sulke interne rolle kan vervul word deur regspraktisyns wat nie praktiserend is nie, maar tog ’n mate van regsdienste lewer vir ’n werkgewerskliënt (salaris-regspraktisyns). Die interne rol kan ook vervul word deur individue wat ’n regsgraad het, maar nie toegelaat of geregistreer is as ’n prokureur of advokaat nie, maar wat nogtans in diens geneem is deur ’n werkgewerskliënt om regsdienste te lewer (ongereguleerde salaris-regspraktisyns).

      Voor die inwerkingtreding van die Wet op die Regspraktyk 28 van 2014 was die posisie van die derde tak van die regsberoep grotendeels ongereguleerd. Hierdie posisie het verander deurdat die Wet op die Regspraktyk, met die bekendstelling van deel 7 van die gedragskode, die eerste stap geneem het om die regspraktisyns in diens van hul werkgewerskliënte te erken en in beperkte mate te reguleer. Desondanks kan die interne rol uiteraard die professionele onafhanklikheid van die salaris-regspraktisyns en die ongereguleerde salaris-regspraktisyns in gevaar stel.

      In hierdie artikel word die verskille en ooreenkomste ondersoek van die regsdienste wat deur al drie die takke van die regsberoep verrig word om vas te stel of die professionele onafhanklikheid van sulke interne rolle binne die derde tak van die regsberoep nadelig kan wees en wat daaraan gedoen kan word. Sodoende word die huidige wetgewende landskap van die Wet op die Regspraktyk ondersoek en tekortkominge uitgelig in verband met die regulering van die derde tak van die regsberoep. Die gevolgtrekking word bereik dat geen gedeelte van die regsberoep aan private organisasies oorgelaat behoort te word om te reguleer soos tans die geval is met die derde tak van die regsberoep nie. Die versuim om alle takke van die regsberoep volledig te reguleer, kan die reputasie en openbare persepsie van die regsberoep nadelig beïnvloed omdat die regsberoep dan slegs gedeeltelik gereguleer word.

        Promoting fair individual labour dispute resolution for South African educators accused of sexual misconduct (part 2)

        Promoting fair individual labour dispute resolution for South African educators accused of sexual misconduct (part 2)

        Author: SA Coetzee

        ISSN: 1996-2207
        Affiliations: Professor, Department of Educational Leadership and Management, College of Education, UNISA
        Source: Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg, Issue 2, 2021, p. 279 – 293
        https://doi.org/10.47348/TSAR/2021/i2a4

        Abstract

        None.

          Analysis of legal professional privilege in the Tax Administration Act.

          Analysis of legal professional privilege in the Tax Administration Act

          Author: Fareed Moosa

          ISSN: 1996-2207
          Affiliations: Associate Professor in the Department of Mercantile and Labour Law, University of the Western Cape
          Source: Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg, Issue 2, 2021, p. 294 – 310
          https://doi.org/10.47348/TSAR/2021/i2a5

          Abstract

          In hierdie artikel toon die outeur dat vir doeleindes van belastingadministrasie onder die Wet op Belastingadministrasie 28 van 2011, ’n belastingbetaler, afhangende van die besondere omstandighede, aanspraak kan maak op die gemeenregtelike voordele wat verband hou met die vertrouensverhouding tussen ’n kliënt en sy/haar regsverteenwoordiger. Verder toon die toepassing van die reëls van uitleg dat, in die Wet op Belastingadministrasie, die wetgewer by implikasie die konsep “regsprofessionele privilegie” breër geformuleer het as in die gemenereg. Daarom, in hierdie konteks, is die konsep nie beperk tot lede van die regsgemeenskap wie se beroep gewoonlik betrokke is by die regspraktyk en gee van regsadvies nie. Ingevolge die Wet op Belastingadministrasie is hierdie voorreg van toepassing op alle vertroulike kommunikasie tussen ’n belastingpligtige en ’n adviseur of diensverskaffer wat in ’n professionele hoedanigheid optree wat wettiglik belastingadvies of ander regsdienste lewer wat deur die Wet op Belastingadministrasie in die vooruitsig gestel word, ongeag of sodanige derde party ’n prokureur, rekenmeester of ander professionele persoon is.

          Artikel 42A(1) van die Wet op Belastingadministrasie 28 van 2011 bepaal dat enige “persoon” protes tydens ’n navraag ingevolge artikel 52 mag aanteken en tydens ’n soek- en beslagleggingsoperasie wat deur artikel 61 in die vooruitsig gestel word eweneens daarteen kan protesteer. Die voorreg, wat bestaan uit regsprofessionele privilegie en litigasievoorreg, is daarop gemik om die privaatheid van belastingpligtige inligting vervat in enige vertroulike kommunikasie te beskerm en te bewaar. Aangesien hierdie bepalings geen gewag maak oor die omvang en reikwydte van regslui se voorreg in hierdie verband nie, interpreteer die outeur in hierdie artikel die formulering in die wetsartikels ooreenkomstig die gevestigde uitlegreëls. Deur ’n tekstuele modusinterpretasie te gebruik, toon die outeur dat artikels 42A en 64 nie die reg op bevoorregting skep nie. Dit erken eerder ’n voorafbestaande substantiewe reg om openbaarmaking van inligting wat uit die gemenereg afgelei word, te weier. Hierdie gemeenregtelike norm is, soos vereis deur artikel 39(3) van die Grondwet van die Republiek van Suid- Afrika, 1996 in ooreenstemming met die handves van regte wat in hoofstuk 2 daarvan verskans is. Die aanvaarding van ’n doelmatige uitlegnorm toon dat ’n belastingpligtige geregtig is op die voordele wat voortspruit uit regslui se privilegie. Dit is die geval nie slegs in die eng omskrewe omstandighede genoem in artikel 42A(1) van die Wet op Belastingadministrasie nie, maar ook tydens enige ander inligtingsindeksionele proses wat deur hierdie wet gereguleer word (soos tydens ’n oudit, inspeksie, strafregtelike ondersoek en tydens ’n appèl in die belastingraad en belastinghof).

          Deur kontekstuele en waardegebaseerde uitlegmetodes te gebruik, voer die outeur in hierdie artikel aan dat die wetgewer by die nodige implikasie die begrip van regslui se privilegie in artikel 42A met artikel 64 van die Belastingadministrasiewet ruimer as by die gemenereg gemaak het. Gevolglik word beweer dat, vir doeleindes van hierdie statuut, regslui se voorreg nie net geëis kan word om vertroulike kommunikasie tussen ’n belastingpligtige, as kliënt, en ’n gekwalifiseerde “regspraktisyn” (naamlik ’n prokureur of advokaat) behoorlik toegelaat en ingeskryf ingevolge die Wet op Regspraktyk 28 van 2014 nie, maar ook om ’n skild te verskaf met betrekking tot vertroulike kommunikasie tussen ’n belastingpligtige en enige rekenmeester, geoktrooieerde rekenmeester, ouditeur, belastingkonsultant en ander persoon wat in ’n professionele hoedanigheid optree as ’n geregistreerde belastingpraktisyn wat voldoen aan artikel 240(1)(i) en (ii) van die Wet op Belastingadministrasie wat advies verskaf oor enige aangeleentheid wat deur artikel 240(1)(a) daarvan gedek word.

            Aantekeninge: Overview of constitutional court judgments on the bill of rights – 2020

            Aantekeninge: Overview of constitutional court judgments on the bill of rights – 2020

            Author: Roxan Laubscher

            ISSN: 1996-2207
            Affiliations: University of Johannesburg
            Source: Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg, Issue 2, 2021, p. 311 – 327
            https://doi.org/10.47348/TSAR/2021/i2a6

            Abstract

            This overview covers the following:

            1. Equality
            2. Dignity
            3. Personal freedom and security
            4. Freedom of expression
            5. Freedom of association
            6. Political rights
            7. Citizenship
            8. Labour relations
            9. Property
            10. Social security
            11. Children’s rights
            12. Education
            13. Access to courts
            14. General provisions regarding the bill of rights